Language in the Byzantine Empire

Language in the Byzantine Empire Constantinople, the new capital that Emperor Constantine developed in the East in the early fourth century CE, lay in a largely Greek-speaking area of the Roman Empire. That doesnt mean that before the Fall of Rome the emperors headquartered and the people living there were native Greek speakers or, even if they were, incompetent Latin speakers. Both languages, Greek and Latin, were part of the repertoire of the educated. Until recently, those who considered themselves educated might be native English speakers but could piece out a short passage of Latin in their literary reading and get by speaking French. Peter and Catherine the Great ushered in an era where the politically important, the nobility of Russia, knew the French language and literature as well as Russian. It was similar in the ancient world. Greek Culture Greek literature and themes dominated Roman writing until the mid-third century B.C., which is about a century after Alexander the Great had started the spread of Hellenism including the Greek Koine language throughout the vast areas that he had conquered. Greek was the language Roman aristocrats demonstrated to show their culture. They imported Greek pedagogues to teach their young. The important rhetorician of the first century BCE, Quintilian, advocated education in Greek  since Roman children would naturally learn Latin on their own. (Inst. Oratoria i.12-14) From the second century CE, it became common for the wealthy to send their already Greek-speaking, but native-Latin-speaking Roman sons to Athens, Greece for higher education. Latin Gaining in Popularity Before the division of the Empire first into the four parts known as the Tetrarchy under Diocletian in 293 CE and then into two (simply an Eastern and a Western section), the second century CE Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his meditations in Greek, following the affectations popular with philosophers. By this time, however, in the West, Latin had gained a certain cachet. A bit later, a contemporary of Constantine, Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-395 CE), from Antioch, Syria, but living in Rome, wrote his history not in his familiar Greek, but in Latin. The first century CE Greek biographer Plutarch went to Rome to learn the language better. (p. 85 Ostler, citing Plutarch Demosthenes 2) The distribution was such that Latin was the language of the people to the west and north of a dividing line beyond Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus down to northern Africa west of western Cyrenaica. In rural areas, the uneducated would not have been expected to know Greek, and if their native language were something other than Latin it might be Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic, or some other ancient tongue they might not even have known Latin well. Likewise on the other side of the dividing line, but with Greek and Latin reversed In the East, they probably knew Greek in rural areas, to the exclusion of Latin, but in urban areas, like Constantinople, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Antioch, Berytus, and Alexandria, most people needed to have some command of both Greek and Latin. Latin helped one advance in the imperial and military service, but otherwise, it was more a formality than a useful tongue, beginning at the start of the fifth century. Last of the Romans The so-called Last of the Romans, Constantinople-based Emperor Justinian (r. 527-565), who was an Illyrian by birth, was a native Latin speaker. Living about a century after the Edward Gibbon-driven date of 476 for the Fall of Rome, Justinian made efforts to regain sections of the West lost to European barbarians. (Barbarian was a term the Greeks had used to mean non-Greek speakers and which the Romans adapted to mean those who spoke neither Greek nor Latin.) Justinian may have been trying to retake the Western Empire, but he had challenges closer to home  since neither Constantinople nor the provinces of the Eastern Empire were secure. There were also the famous Nika riots and a plague (see Lives of the Caesars). By his time, Greek had become the official language of the surviving section of the Empire, the Eastern (or later, Byzantine) Empire. Justinian had to publish his famous law code, the Corpus Iuris Civile in both Greek and Latin. Greeks vs Romans This sometimes confuses people who think the use of the Greek language in Constantinople means the inhabitants thought of themselves as Greeks, rather than as Romans. Particularly when arguing for a post-5th-century date for the Fall of Rome, some counter that by the time the Eastern Empire stopped legally requiring Latin, the inhabitants thought of themselves as Greeks, not Romans. Ostler asserts that the Byzantines referred to their language as romaika (Romanish) and that this term was in use until the 19th century. In addition, the people were known as Rumi a term obviously much closer to Roman than Greek. We in the West might think of them as non-Romans, but that is another story. By the time of Justinian, Latin was not the common tongue of Constantinople, although it was still an official language. The Roman people of the city spoke a form of Greek, a Koine. Sources Chapter 8 Greek in the Byzantine Empire: The Major Issues Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers, Second Edition, by Geoffrey Horrocks; Wiley:  © 2010.The Latin Language, by L. R. Palmer; University of Oklahoma Press: 1987.Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin, by Nicholas Ostler; Walker: 2007.

Public health policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public health policy - Essay Example Insufficient sleep, untimely eating and excessive use of sugar-contained drinks and alcohols trigger obesity. Similarly, junk food and soft drinks, which are highly rich in sugar, are also increasing the number of obese persons in the United Kingdom. Boseley (2014) points out that more than 70 per cent of adults are either overweight or obese in England. In other words, the overweight are those who are more prone and vulnerable to obesity if they continue with the same style of eating habit and living style. Cancer, diabetes and heart diseases are the main potentials effects of obesity (Boseley, 2014a). Boseley (2014a) further explains that the causes of cancer, which include obesity, alcohol abuse and sugar intake, will increase the cancer cases which could reach 25 million a year over the period of next 20 years as warned by the World Health Organisation. Moreover, the cases of diabetes and heart diseases will also increase as many adults do not give much consideration to their health and related issues as well. Aggregately, their rise will put more burden on the United Kingdom’s health index and health expenditure as more and more patients will register their case and take essential medical care and treatment from the primary health care units and other health venues. Obesity and weight gain are closely linked with psychological ill health (Ternouth et al., 2009). Healthy body and mind are highly essential for performing routine personal, social and professional activities and these activities are only effectively performed if mind properly regulates the supply of energy and other food requirements of different body parts and at the same time maintains psychological balance by avoiding any disorder. However, recent food eating habits and modern lifestyle prompt obesity and weight gain which create problems for mind and also severely affect the psychological balance. This graph clearly demonstrates the growing level of obese

SHORT ANSWER ONLY Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SHORT ANSWER ONLY - Assignment Example An example is the perception by the United States of America to be superior to other nations in terms of its economic and military might. This is manifested by their incursion in the Middle East. This is the principal that all customs, beliefs and ethical standards of a particular group are relative to its own interpretation and other groups should understand them in that groups perception (Cahoone, 2005). Thus no culture should perceive itself to be superior to another when comparing their structure of religion, politics, language or rule against another group. This concept is important to guard against biased judgment by anthropological researchers in taking field notes on an ethnic group to which they don’t belong. Hence your cultural identity should not portray you as ethnocentric in your final reporting of a culture (Cahoone, 2005). An example is the Chinese people who eat dog meat. In my culture, dog is considered as a pet. It is my conviction therefore to appreciate them in impartiality even though I might hold a controversial opinion. This is a perspective used by anthropologist mostly in cultural anthropology to study a society’s cultural system. Emic perspective is culture specific. It focuses on the inherent cultural distinctions that are significant to members of a given culture. This concept is paramount as it guides researcher against subjective opinion while embarking on a cross-cultural study (Liu, 2001). Hence the members of a society are the solitary judges of the legitimacy of an emic description. It gives major credence to local viewpoints. An example of emic is specific definition of a marriage. For instance, polyandry practiced in some societies is viewed as normal. This a process by which a person adapts to and assimilates the culture in which he lives in. He or she becomes a successful member of the society by practicing its accepted norms and values. It is a lifelong process learned through

Adoption of a reflective approach and reflective thinking

Adoption of a reflective approach and reflective thinking Basically, the basis of reflective approach suggests that the assessment of teacher quality should be achieved through reflection (Vieira and Marques: 2002). It is noteworthy therefore, that many writers in the field of teacher education such as, (Loughram: 1996; Richards: 1995; Cruickshan and Applegate: 1981; Dewy: 1910) have sought to define this word. A according to Richards (1995:1) the concept of reflection or critical reflection indicates to an activity or process in which an experience is recalled, considered and evaluated, usually in relation to broader purpose. It is a response to past experience and involves conscious recall and examination of the experience as a basis for evaluation and decision-making and as a source for planning and action. It is defined also by Cruickshan and Applegate (1981:553) as helping teacher to think about what happened, why it happened and what else they could have done to reach their goal. Furthermore, reflection is considered the deliberate and purposeful act of thinking which centres on ways of responding to problem situations (Loughram: 1996). Accordingly, it is noted that they agree that reflective teachers employ cognitive processes in order to solve the problems which might face them in their daily professional practice. On the other hand, the notion of reflective thinking traced back to Dewey (1910) which refers to problem framing, identifying alternative solutions and choosing from options according to the outcome we want and the situation at hand (Dewey: 1910 cited in Roberts: 1998). The main reasons for the adoption of reflective approach and reflective thinking: There are many reasons for the adoption of reflective approach and reflective thinking in teacher development programs which I think they are considered positive aspects. One of these aspects is that reflection approach provides a solution for teachers to shift from the routinised and automatic acts in their classroom situations and enables them to possess awareness about the kinds of decisions which they might make in their teaching and choosing the consequences of their instructional decisions. This can be achieved through reflecting on ones teaching as a step towards change in their teaching way (Richards: 1995).Because, according to (ibid: 1995) teachers who utilised reflective analysis in their own teaching admitted that it is a valuable element for professional growth and self evaluation. Another positive aspect is that the adoption of reflective thinking in teacher education can be considered a beneficial factor because, as Posner (1989) points out, when students teachers have the reflective thinking they will have new teaching ways instead of being tradition and have the possibility to interpret new experiences derived from their fresh ideas as a result of reflective thinking. Further more, reflective thinking will enable teachers to possess a philosophical approach to teach coherently because, by developing this kind of thinking they have the ability to integrate various types of knowledge which could be received during their teacher development program. On the other hand, it is important to note that reflection which is the basic component in reflection approach and reflective thinking has many advantages which can not be ignored. One of these advantages is that we can achieve the personal growth through reflection, because it makes us free from single views of situations which might hinder our thinking in defining problems and finding solutions. Moreover, problems which might face teachers can be reframed in different ways by reflection. Thus, providing a wide range of possible ideas then, helping teachers to have a wide range of possible solutions (Dewey: 1910 cited in Roberts: 1998). Additionally, when teachers use reflection they will have the ability to think about educational aspects of their work and a raise awareness of important ethical and moral questions (Van Manen: 1977). However, it is worth noted to mention the importance of critical reflection as Richards (1998) indicates that it enables teacher to have comprehension knowledge about themselves as teachers as a result, they can be prepared well to have a decision about their own teaching. This view can be supported by Dewey in 1904 when he pointed out preparing teachers to be critically reflective about their practice may be more important in long term than focussing on mastery of the techniques and skills (Dewey: 1904 cited in Richards: 1998:152). On the other hand, reflective teachers characterise by positive features according to the finding of a longitudinal study conducted by Korthagen and Wubbels (1995) regarded to teacher education program in Utrecht. These features include: First, reflective teacher have the ability to structure situations and problems. Second, they can evaluate their experience by using questioning approach for example, asking questions such as, why and how this happened in their own teaching. Third, they possess strong feeling of personal security and self efficacy and able to analyze and describe experience and interaction perfectly. Fourth, they are independent learners because they have clear understanding about what they need to learn. Hence, from what discussed above, we can see that reflective approach and reflective thinking play an important role which can not be ignored in teacher development programs. The underlying principles of reflective approach: Since reflection is considered an important element in reflective approach, writers such as (Dewey: 1910, 1933; Schà ¶n: 1983; Wallace: 1991) gave a great deal of discussion based on it. I am going to analyse the principles of reflective approach based on their discussions as follows: The principles based on Deweys account: According to Dewey (1910:1933) reflective thinking is the basis of deliberative thought. In his perspective disciplined deliberative thinking is seen as a basis for citizenship and personal progress (Roberts: 1998). Moreover, in order to reflect effectively, teachers should develop particular skills, for instance, observation and reasoning and should possess some sort of qualities such as, responsibility, open minded and wholeheartedness ( Griffiths:2000). But, it is noted that there is a shortcoming with this account in that his idea of teaching as routine action is unjustified because as Furlong and Maynard (1995:45) considered it is an over-simplification and does not capture the multi-facetedness ,unpredictability and sheer complexity of teaching (Furlong and Maynard:1995 cited in Griffiths:2000). The principles based on Schà ¶ns account: Wallaces reflective model: The principles of reflective approach in Wallaces reflective model emphasis that there are two important types of knowledge which should be included in teacher education courses comprised: First, received knowledge and second, experiential knowledge. The first refers to all concepts, skills and theories that trainees received through their academic study or from other sources such as, reading books. The second refers to the knowledge based on trainees past experience in their teaching practice (Wallace: 1991). Wallaces model, however, is separated into three stages as follows: The pr- training stage. The professional education/development stage. The professional competence stage. It is demonstrated in figure (4.1) below. To put it more simple, in the first stage there is believe that teachers trainees who engaged in professional education do not come with blank minds. In other words, they have already the idea of good and bad teacher that is to say, what Wallace refers to trainees existing conceptual schemata or mental constructs (Wallace: 49:1991). In the second stage, the professional development is achieved by theory and practice that is what he refers to as a cyclical process. In other words, the received knowledge and the experiential knowledge are integrated together. To illustrate, once students teachers engaged into classroom environment, they have the ability to discover a real framework of teaching and have awareness of the differences of classroom situations. Accordingly, their performance will be recalled during their teaching practice. For example, they will ask questions such as, how could some experienced teachers tackle with those situations and how they themselves can deal with them. Thus, they can evaluate their professional performance by reflecting upon their classroom activities. As a result, the positive and negative sides of their teaching strategy will be discovered. Hence, they will be professional educators and have the professional competence which is the aim of the third stage (ibid). Although, Wallaces reflective model can be applied in both pre-service and in-service education, yet from the principles drew above. It is noted that there are some limitations, because there is an important question should be asked here, is the experience shared among teachers because it seems to be private. Another limitation lies in participants school culture might not encourage reflection.

Difficulties of Studying Abroad Essay

The benefits of studying abroad do justify the difficulties due to being new to the country and not knowing where to start from and the difficulty of the foreign language that the student may face. My advice to the student is that to be familiar with the country that he/she is applying for, so they can be able to communicate with others easily without having to go through a hard time looking through a dictionary to explain themselves and not to feel lost. Mostly the difficulties that the student goes through is the travel and living costs may be considerably higher than a comparable period at your home institution, even if you are receiving a grant to cover some of the costs. Another difficulty that you may face is the academic performance in the foreign language you are aware of could be limited and your understanding wouldn’t be the same as your own language. Also you might find the type of teaching unproductive; especially if you are going from an environment with lots of teacher/student contact to one with lectures and large classes. Adapting in the social environment, habits, and customs could be difficult. Although all the the difficulties that were mentioned, you can benefit from them by experiencing another educational system that can be instructive and insightful, and an opportunity to get to know and travel around a country in a way that is not possible on a holiday or short visit. Also acquiring advanced language skills can be personally enriching and an asset for your future. As I mentioned before about the benefits and difficulties of studying abroad, I hope I have helped you with my advice with being more familiar in choosing where you will end up in the future.

Technology Essay Topics Reviews & Guide

Technology Essay Topics Reviews & Guide There are invariably a broad range of opinions on the topic of technology, and here are our favourite things to consider on the subject. The option of compare and contrast essay topics isn't a simple task because you should clearly show your analytical skills. The multiple topics might be found, for instance, in the dissertation abstracts international database. In the event you seek an internet service to provide you the ideal essay topics in English, we're here to be at your services. A Secret Weapon for Technology Essay Topics The primary goal of topic choice for a proposal essay is to demonstrate the idea can be put into place in practice. You always intuitively understand once an intriguing essay idea is in fact the ideal idea for you. A conclusion is, without doubt, the most essential portion of the argumentative essay as possible either support the excellent impression or destroy it entirely. It gives the overall verdict of the argument. Introducing Technology Essay Topics Young writers may try simple on-line citation generators which are ordinarily at no charge. All you need to do is select the category or kind of essay that you were assigned to write for school. Following are various sorts of essay topics for students that are categorized in many sections so you can easily chose the topic depending on your need and requirement. When you're at college or school, one of the principal tasks you need to do is write essays. A Startling Fact about Technology Essay Topics Uncovered The essay is just one of the important methods it's possible to distinguish yourself. Writing a superb persuasive essay is not an easy job, however, it's achievable. Argumentative essay topics are so important since they are debatableand it's essential to at all times be critically considering the world around us. It's important to select debatable argumentative essay topics as you need opposing points that you are able to counter to your own points. Controversial topics work nicely for speeches and essays, since they typically evoke strong opinions on either side. Researching the topic permits you to find out more about what fascinates you, and should you pick something you truly like, writing the essay will be more enjoyable. Moral argumentative essay topics are a few of the simplest to get carried away with. There are many essay topics that you may pick from. The Appeal of Technology Essay Topics It's possible to also restate the ideas that you've discussed in the body paragraphs in order to make your point valid. So, it's a significant foundation for assorted epic stories! You wish to find a topic that has lots of available material for you to use. When choosing what to write about, ensure that it is something which you understand about. Here's What I Know About Technology Essay Topics The web has made our life a good deal simpler. You may see that the procedure is nearly always the exact same. Information technol ogy changes the surface of the workplace with each technological leap. The Tried and True Method for Technology Essay Topics in Step by Step Detail It's possible to go for an intriguing topic from any area of science. Which topic you decide on could help determine the entire writing process, the research, along with the grad you are going to get. Therefore, for your coursework, you're want to have the very best ideas. Contribute your suggestions and people are sure to read! If you would like your presentation to be the best it can be, it is crucial to pick the most suitable topic. Try out another topic and do the exact same 5-minute writing test till you locate a topic you know you can readily write on. To compose an outstanding paper, you should thoroughly select your topic. If you get to select your own topic, that's fantastic. When it has to do with writing an argumentative essay, the most crucial issue to do is to select a topic and an argument that you could really get behind. Write about a problem which you have or would like to fix. The topic has to be interesting, the topic has to be essential and finally the topic has to be informative. When you are requested to decide on a great topic for your argument, start with something you're acquainted with. Quite frequently, the very best topic is one which you truly care about, but you also will need to get ready to research it. Deciding on your topic isn't that easy. Well, the reply isn't too obvious here.

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